HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE GUTTER: MANUAL SCAVENGING AND ITS SOCIETAL IMPACTS

Patrali Sahu is a Fourth-Year Student at Maharashtra National Law University, Aurangabad.

HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE GUTTER: MANUAL SCAVENGING AND ITS SOCIETAL IMPACTS

ABSTRACT

Manual scavenging, the practice of manually cleaning human excreta from dry latrines, sewers, and open drains, represents one of the most dehumanizing forms of labour in India. Despite constitutional guarantees of equality and dignity, and multiple legislative measures prohibiting the practice, manual scavenging persists as a stark reminder of the entrenched caste system and systemic failures in governance and societal attitudes. This paper examines the historical context of manual scavenging, tracing its origins to caste-based discrimination and the colonial era, where it became institutionalized. The study delves into the current legal framework, including landmark legislations like the 1993[1] and 2013[2] Acts, aimed at banning manual scavenging and ensuring rehabilitation. It also highlights judicial interventions, such as the Safai Karamchari Andolan v. Union of India[3], which directed governments to address the rights and safety of manual scavengers. However, poor implementation, inadequate resource allocation, and societal apathy have hindered progress. The paper explores the social, economic, and health impacts on those engaged in manual scavenging, emphasizing the interplay of caste discrimination, poverty, and lack of alternative livelihoods. Technological challenges, such as the inefficacy of imported cleaning machines in narrow urban areas, are analysed alongside solutions like locally designed, affordable robotics. Recognizing the role of civil society and legal frameworks, this research advocates for increased awareness, robust policy enforcement, and skill development initiatives. By integrating insights from the 2024 Manual Scavenging Conference[4], it underscores the urgent need for collective action to dismantle this practice and foster a more inclusive, equitable society.

Keywords- Manual Scavenging, Caste, Equality, Employment, Discrimination

INTRODUCTION

Manual scavenging, despite being prohibited by law, remains a dark reality in India, deeply entrenched in the country’s social and economic fabric. Defined as the manual cleaning, carrying, or disposal of human excreta from dry latrines or sewers, this practice disproportionately affects marginalized communities, often referred to as Dalits, who have historically been relegated to this degrading occupation due to caste-based discrimination. The persistence of manual scavenging raises urgent questions about the effectiveness of legislative measures and the role of societal attitudes in perpetuating this inhumane practice.

The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers And Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 defines ‘manual scavenging’ as a person engaged or employed by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit into which the human excreta from the insanitary latrines is disposed of, or on a railway track or in such other spaces or premises.[5]

The practice has its roots in India’s rigid caste system, where certain communities were traditionally tasked with sanitation work as a hereditary occupation. Despite constitutional safeguards and progressive legislation, including the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993[6], and the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, the issue persists due to weak enforcement, lack of awareness, and systemic neglect. In fact, a 2022-23[7] survey by National Safai Karamcharis Finance & Development Corporation[8] (NSKFDC) revealed that over 58,098 manual scavengers were still employed across the country, highlighting the stark gap between policy and practice.

The socio-economic implications of manual scavenging are profound. Workers are often forced into this hazardous occupation due to extreme poverty and lack of alternative livelihood options. They face life-threatening risks, including exposure to toxic gases and unsanitary conditions, often without any protective gear. Moreover, the wages are abysmally low, further entrenching these workers in cycles of poverty and exploitation. Beyond economic hardship, manual scavengers endure severe social stigma and exclusion, with their caste and occupation perpetuating discrimination in education, employment, and community participation.

While technological advancements, such as the introduction of sewer-cleaning robots, offer potential solutions, their adoption remains limited due to high costs and infrastructural challenges. Imported machines are often unsuitable for Indian conditions, particularly in unauthorized areas where manual scavenging is most prevalent. These barriers underscore the need for context-specific solutions and stronger governmental interventions.

The eradication of manual scavenging is not just a legal obligation but a moral imperative. It requires a collective effort involving policymakers, civil society, and individuals to address the root causes, dismantle caste-based prejudices, and create sustainable alternatives. By recognizing the inherent dignity of every individual and prioritizing their rights and well-being, society can take meaningful steps toward ending this archaic and dehumanizing practice.

CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Manual scavenging has deep historical roots in India’s social and cultural fabric, often intersecting with caste hierarchies that perpetuate systemic marginalization. Ancient texts, scriptures and literatures like the Naradasamhita describe sanitation tasks, indicating that this work was already relegated to specific groups within the societal structure. Similarly, historical evidence from the Mauryan period, Ashokan edicts, Mughal records, and British colonial accounts highlights the role of manual scavenging as a caste-designated occupation, underscoring its long-standing presence in the subcontinent.

1.1 Ancient and Religious Perspectives

In ancient India, manual scavenging was tied to the varna system, with specific responsibilities allocated to communities classified as “Shudras.” While the practice was justified as essential to maintaining societal hygiene, it inherently dehumanized those performing it, assigning them a status of untouchability. Religious doctrines often reinforced this segregation, further entrenching the divide between caste groups. Such practices not only stigmatized individuals but also normalized inequities in social and occupational spheres.[9]

Manusmriti describes a societal structure where specific classes of people are segregated based on assigned duties, with their origins symbolically linked to different parts of Brahma’s body. According to Manu, Sudras emerged from Brahma’s feet, Vaishyas from the thighs, Kshatriyas from the arms, and Brahmins from the mouth.[10] This system, known as Varnashrama Dharma, represents a social hierarchy or caste system.[11]

In the initial stage, represented by the Sudra caste, individuals have minimal responsibilities and are expected to embody virtues such as obedience and reverence. The second stage, associated with the Vaishya caste, involves fulfilling ordinary business and household duties. The third stage, linked to the Kshatriya caste, focuses on national responsibilities. Finally, the Brahmin stage signifies a life dedicated to wisdom and spiritual growth.

Sudras are expected to dutifully serve the other three castes with submission, without neglecting their responsibilities. Additionally, a person’s caste may change if they adopt duties associated with another caste, although such changes are generally discouraged unless compelled by unavoidable circumstances.[12]

1.2 Medieval Tracings

During the medieval period, Muslim rulers played a pivotal role in promoting and establishing Islamic culture in India. The practice of Purdah among Muslim women has been associated with the prevalence of manual scavenging.[13] Due to inadequate sanitation facilities, women were often forced to find secluded areas for defecation, which required the external disposal of waste.[14] Scavengers who served Hindu communities also extended their services to Muslim households. According to the 1960 Enquiry Committee on Scavengers[15], chaired by N. R. Malkani, certain untouchable caste groups in Hindu society, like the “Chandals” and “Malecchas,” were drawn to Islam’s message of equality. However, even after converting to Islam, many continued to work as scavengers.[16]

1.3 Colonial Institutionalization

The colonial period saw the formalization and institutionalization of manual scavenging. British authorities, aiming to maintain sanitation in growing urban centres, co-opted marginalized communities into sanitation roles. These jobs, requiring manual removal of waste from dry latrines, were poorly compensated and lacked any protective measures, perpetuating cycles of poverty and exclusion. The colonial government’s sanitation policies reinforced caste-based occupational segregation, treating these workers as expendable labour.

1.4 Reformist Perspectives

The practice of manual scavenging was a significant concern for Indian social reformers. Mahatma Gandhi[17], who saw sanitation as a critical aspect of societal reform, emphasized the dignity of labour but failed to dissociate the profession from its caste-based implications. Gandhi viewed scavenging as a noble service, advocating for its voluntary adoption by all individuals irrespective of caste. However, his vision often clashed with the reality of deeply entrenched discrimination.[18]

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar offered a contrasting perspective, unequivocally condemning manual scavenging as a manifestation of caste oppression. He recognized that the practice was inherently tied to the denial of basic human rights to marginalized communities. Ambedkar’s campaigns, including the Bhangi Jhadu Chhodo movement, aimed to liberate these communities from degrading occupations and advocate for structural reforms. His efforts laid the groundwork for legislative measures in post-independence India, focusing on equality and dignity.[19]

Manual scavenging is not primarily a result of insufficient investment in proper equipment but is deeply entrenched in the caste system. This social structure organizes society hierarchically, largely based on occupation.[20] Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the principal architect of the Indian Constitution and a member of the untouchable caste, identified scavenging as an ancient practice that perpetuates systemic discrimination. He traced its origins back to 600 B.C.[21] Ambedkar’s influential work highlighted those ancient Hindu scriptures, such as the Naradasamhita and the Manusmriti, significantly contributed to establishing a system where members of the untouchable caste were forced into performing tasks considered “polluting,” akin to conditions of slavery.

1.5 Post-Independence Developments

Despite the abolition of untouchability under Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, manual scavenging persisted as a systemic issue. Post-independence policies initially focused on rehabilitation but failed to address the root causes of the practice, namely caste-based discrimination and poverty. Attempts to mechanize sanitation tasks were sporadic and inadequate, with limited reach to rural and urban informal settlements.

Efforts to legislate against manual scavenging began with the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993[22]. However, its limited scope and ineffective implementation revealed the gap between policy and practice. The 2013[23] Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act expanded the legal framework, explicitly banning the employment of manual scavengers and mandating their rehabilitation. Yet, systemic challenges and societal apathy have continued to hinder progress.

1.5 Intersection with Modern Challenges

In the contemporary context, manual scavenging remains emblematic of unresolved caste disparities. Surveys, such as the National Survey on Manual Scavengers by NITI Aayog[24], highlight the continued prevalence of the practice and its associated hazards. This persistence underscores the failure of societal and policy interventions to eliminate deeply rooted inequities. Furthermore, technological advancements in sanitation, though promising, have yet to reach marginalized communities effectively.

The historical trajectory of manual scavenging reflects a broader narrative of societal exclusion and systemic neglect. Understanding this context is crucial to framing contemporary solutions that address not only the practical aspects of sanitation but also the underlying social dynamics that perpetuate this inhumane practice.

CHAPTER 2: CURRENT LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS ADDRESSING MANUAL SCAVENGING IN INDIA

Manual scavenging, the practice of manually cleaning, carrying, disposing, or handling human excreta from dry latrines and sewers, has been a persistent issue in India, deeply rooted in the caste system. Over the years, the Indian government has implemented various legal and policy measures to eradicate this inhumane practice and rehabilitate those involved. This section provides an expanded overview of the constitutional provisions, legislative enactments, policy initiatives, and judicial interventions aimed at addressing manual scavenging.

2.1 Constitutional Provisions

The Constitution of India[25] enshrines several articles that safeguard individuals against practices like manual scavenging:

Article 14: Guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
Article 17: Abolishes “untouchability” and forbids its practice in any form, declaring it a punishable offense.
Article 21: Ensures the right to life and personal liberty, which has been interpreted to include the right to live with dignity.
Article 46: Directs the State to promote the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections, protecting them from social injustice and exploitation.
Article 338: Establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes to investigate and monitor matters relating to the safeguards provided for Scheduled Castes.

These constitutional provisions lay the foundation for legislative and policy measures targeting the eradication of manual scavenging.

2.2 Legislative Measures

The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993[26]: This Act aimed to eliminate manual scavenging by prohibiting the employment of manual scavengers and the construction of dry latrines. It prescribed penalties for contraventions, including imprisonment and fines. However, the Act faced significant implementation challenges, and no convictions were recorded during its two decades in force.
The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013[27]: Enacted to address the shortcomings of the 1993 Act, this legislation expanded the definition of manual scavenging to include hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks. It mandated:
- Identification and survey of manual scavengers.
- Conversion of insanitary latrines into sanitary ones.
- Rehabilitation of manual scavengers through training, financial assistance, and alternative employment opportunities.
- Prohibition of manual scavenging employment, with penalties for violations, including imprisonment up to two years and fines.

Despite its comprehensive framework, the 2013 Act has encountered implementation hurdles, with manual scavenging persisting in various regions.

Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation (Amendment) Bill, 2022:[28] This proposed amendment seeks to further strengthen the 2013 Act by:
- Mandating complete mechanization of sewer and septic tank cleaning to eliminate manual intervention.
- Introducing stricter penalties for violations.
- Enhancing rehabilitation measures for those engaged in manual scavenging.

The Bill underscores the government’s commitment to eradicating manual scavenging through technological interventions and stricter enforcement.

2.3 Policy Initiatives

Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), 2007:[29] This scheme aimed to rehabilitate manual scavengers and their dependents by providing:
- Training in alternative occupations.
- Financial assistance for self-employment ventures.
- Subsidies and concessional loans to facilitate economic upliftment.

The SRMS sought to empower manual scavengers by enabling them to transition to dignified livelihoods.

National Action Plan for Mechanized Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE), 2020:[30] Launched to modernize sanitation work, NAMASTE focuses on:
- Mechanizing sewer and septic tank cleaning operations.
- Providing skill development and training to sanitation workers.
- Ensuring the safety and dignity of workers through the provision of protective gear and equipment.

NAMASTE represents a significant policy shift towards mechanization, aiming to eliminate the need for manual scavenging.

2.4 Judicial Interventions

The judiciary has played a pivotal role in addressing manual scavenging:

Safai Karamchari Andolan & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. (2014):[31] In this landmark case, the Supreme Court directed:
- The complete eradication of manual scavenging.
- Rehabilitation of all identified manual scavengers.
- Provision of protective gear and safety measures for sanitation workers.
- Regular surveys to identify and rehabilitate manual scavengers.

The Court emphasized the constitutional mandate to uphold the dignity and rights of individuals engaged in sanitation work.

Recent Developments (2023): The Supreme Court, in October 2023, reiterated the need for effective implementation of laws related to manual scavenging, directing the Union and State governments to:
- Ensure strict enforcement of existing legislation.
- Expedite the mechanization of sewer and septic tank cleaning.
- Provide comprehensive rehabilitation packages for affected individuals.

These judicial pronouncements underscore the ongoing commitment to eradicating manual scavenging and upholding human dignity.

2.5 Challenges in Implementation

Despite robust legal and policy frameworks, several challenges impede the eradication of manual scavenging:

Social Stigma and Caste Dynamics: Deep-rooted caste-based discrimination perpetuates the practice, with marginalized communities often coerced into manual scavenging due to lack of alternative employment opportunities.
Inadequate Infrastructure: Insufficient sanitation infrastructure and reliance on dry latrines necessitate manual cleaning, sustaining the demand for manual scavenging.
Lack of Awareness: Many manual scavengers are unaware of their rights and the rehabilitation schemes available to them, hindering their transition to alternative livelihoods.
Enforcement Deficiencies: Weak enforcement mechanisms and lack of accountability among local authorities result in continued violations of prohibitory laws.

Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach, integrating legal enforcement, social reform, infrastructure development, and community empowerment.

The eradication of manual scavenging in India necessitates a concerted effort encompassing stringent law enforcement, policy implementation, technological innovation, and societal transformation. Upholding the constitutional values of equality and dignity mandates the complete abolition of this inhumane practice and the rehabilitation of those affected, ensuring their integration into mainstream society with respect and opportunity.

CHAPTER 3: SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS

3.1 Health and Safety

Manual scavengers face significant health risks due to the hazardous nature of their work. Often, they are required to clean sewers, septic tanks, and dry latrines without any protective gear, exposing themselves to toxic gases and harmful pathogens. Reports have highlighted numerous fatalities linked to sewer cleaning, underscoring the dangers these workers endure. For instance, between 2018 and 2023, 443 deaths related to sewer cleaning were reported, demonstrating the persistent risks associated with manual scavenging. Additionally, the lack of proper safety measures leads to chronic health conditions among workers, further exacerbating their vulnerability.

3.2 Economic Exploitation

Despite the life-threatening risks, manual scavengers are paid extremely low wages that barely sustain their livelihoods. Workers often earn as little as ₹14,000 per month, which is insufficient to meet basic needs, let alone afford protective gear or training for alternative occupations. Women engaged in manual scavenging earn even less, sometimes as low as ₹100–₹150 per day, highlighting the intersectional exploitation faced by this group. Moreover, the high costs of mechanized cleaning equipment, even with government subsidies, prevent workers from transitioning to safer methods, leaving them trapped in a cycle of poverty and hazardous work.

3.3 Social Stigma and Caste Discrimination

Manual scavenging is deeply entrenched in India’s caste system, predominantly affecting Dalit communities. The practice perpetuates social exclusion and discrimination, with workers often denied basic dignities. For example, Dalits are frequently barred from participating in cultural events or accessing public spaces like certain areas or facilities. Such systemic discrimination limits their social mobility and reinforces their marginalization. Furthermore, children from families involved in manual scavenging face discrimination in schools, with many dropping out due to stigma and financial hardships.

3.4 Psychological Impact

The dehumanizing nature of manual scavenging leaves lasting psychological scars on those involved. Workers face constant humiliation and exclusion, which takes a toll on their mental well-being. For example, many workers have reported being bullied or ostracized due to their association with manual scavenging, further alienating them from mainstream society. The generational cycle of caste-based discrimination also exacerbates feelings of hopelessness and societal neglect among these communities.

3.5 Broader Societal Implications

The persistence of manual scavenging reflects societal apathy toward marginalized groups and the normalization of caste-based discrimination. The issue is often ignored in public discourse, with limited representation in political or policy-making agendas. As a result, the systemic barriers faced by manual scavengers remain unaddressed, perpetuating their exploitation and marginalization.

By highlighting these societal implications, it becomes clear that the eradication of manual scavenging is not merely a legal or technical challenge but a deeply ingrained social issue that requires collective action and a shift in societal mindsets.

3.6 Technological and Engineering Challenges

While advancements in sanitation technology, such as robotic cleaners, have been made, their adoption remains limited. Factors include:

High costs of machines, even with government subsidies.
Incompatibility of imported technology with Indian infrastructure.
Limited access to unauthorized areas, where manual scavenging is most prevalent.

CHAPTER 4: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

The issue of manual scavenging in India necessitates actionable and multi-dimensional solutions that address the systemic failures contributing to its persistence. The recommendations, drawn directly from the conference discussions and insights in the report, focus on policy enforcement, technological innovation, societal change, and empowerment of the affected communities.

4.1 Enhancing Awareness and Accessibility

The lack of awareness about legal rights and rehabilitation schemes among manual scavengers is a critical barrier to progress. The report emphasizes the need for:

Awareness Campaigns: Nationwide initiatives to educate manual scavengers about their rights under existing laws and policies.
Transparency: Ensuring clear and accessible communication regarding government schemes designed for their rehabilitation and welfare.
Citizen Engagement: Encouraging privileged and educated citizens to take an active role in demanding better implementation of these policies, such as through filing RTIs or court interventions.

4.2 Strengthening Implementation

The ineffective enforcement of laws and policies, such as the 1993 and 2013 acts, continues to perpetuate manual scavenging. Recommendations include:

Regular Inspections: Mandating inspections at both central and state levels to ensure compliance with anti-manual scavenging laws.
Penalties for Non-Compliance: Introducing strict penalties for local authorities and contractors who fail to enforce these laws.
Judicial Oversight: Leveraging court directives to monitor and ensure that rehabilitation measures are implemented effectively.

4.3 Promoting Technological Solutions

The adoption of technology can significantly reduce human involvement in hazardous manual scavenging tasks. The report identifies challenges and potential solutions:

Affordable Local Technology: Developing cost-effective machines tailored to Indian infrastructure and narrow, unauthorized areas.
Government Subsidies: Increasing financial support to make technological alternatives accessible to workers, bridging the gap where current subsidies are insufficient.
Innovation in Design: Moving beyond imported solutions to create robots and machines suited for diverse Indian conditions, including vertical and horizontal cleaning in challenging terrains.

4.4 Rehabilitation and Skill Development

Transitioning manual scavengers to dignified and sustainable livelihoods is critical. Suggestions include:

Comprehensive Training Programs: Equipping workers with skills for alternate professions, breaking the generational cycle of manual scavenging.
Support for Families: Providing free and compulsory education for children of manual scavengers to ensure better opportunities.
Legal and Financial Aid: Addressing delays and corruption in providing compensation and rehabilitation packages to affected families.

4.5 Community Engagement

Societal perceptions and caste-based discrimination are deeply intertwined with manual scavenging. The report stresses the need for:

Changing Mindsets: Promoting the dignity of labour and reframing societal views toward sanitation workers.
Empathy in Education: Encouraging discussions and workshops in schools and communities to foster respect and inclusivity.
Supportive Policies: Implementing measures to ensure that marginalized groups receive equal opportunities and are integrated into mainstream society.

CONCLUSION

Manual scavenging remains a deeply entrenched practice in India despite legal prohibitions and policy interventions. It symbolizes the failure of society to address systemic caste-based discrimination and the socio-economic marginalization of vulnerable communities. The eradication of this practice requires a multi-dimensional strategy that integrates strong legal frameworks, technological advancements, and a transformative societal mindset.

The persistence of manual scavenging, even after decades of legislative efforts, highlights the limitations of enforcement and the deep-rooted normalization of this practice. Societal apathy and systemic neglect allow manual scavengers to remain trapped in hazardous and demeaning conditions. The disproportionate focus on superficial measures, without addressing the underlying issues of caste-based exclusion and economic vulnerability, has hindered progress. A fundamental change in the perception of labour and dignity is essential to break the generational cycle of discrimination.

Technological solutions, though available, are often inaccessible to those who need them the most. Imported machines fail to address the unique infrastructural challenges of Indian cities and rural areas, while their high costs place them out of reach for workers earning minimum wages. The state must invest in locally tailored and affordable technology to reduce human involvement in this degrading work. Equally important is ensuring that rehabilitation efforts are meaningful and holistic, providing not just financial aid but also educational and skill-building opportunities to help workers transition to alternative livelihoods.

Education and awareness play a critical role in reshaping societal attitudes. Empowering individuals through knowledge of their rights and fostering community engagement can challenge the normalization of manual scavenging and promote a culture of dignity and inclusion. Judicial interventions, while significant, need better enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with directives aimed at safeguarding the rights and well-being of manual scavengers.

In conclusion, the fight against manual scavenging is not just about eradicating a practice but about dismantling the systemic inequalities that sustain it. It requires a concerted effort from all sections of society—government, civil organizations, and individuals—to ensure that no one is subjected to such inhumane conditions. Building a society that values every individual equally and recognizes the dignity of labour is the only way forward.

[1] The Employment Of Manual Scavengers And Construction Of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993

https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1581/1/199346.pdf

[2] The Prohibition Of Employment As Manual Scavengers And Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013

https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/2119/1/201325.pdf

[3] Safai Karamchari Andolan v. Union of India 2014 (11) SCC 224

[4] Human Rights Defense International Manual Scavanging Event https://www.hrdi.in/hrdi-manual-scavanging-event-5/

[5] S.2(g) Manual Scavenger, The Prohibition Of Employment As Manual Scavengers And Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/2119/1/201325.pdf

[6] Supra 1

[7] 26th Annual Report 2022-23, pg. no. 18

https://drive.google.com/file/d/161I7hb4kvkfgAC6Vgox5vdxf33utsqrP/view

[8] National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation https://nskfdc.nic.in/

[9] Manual Scavengers – the Harsh Reality and Its Legal Framework in India

https://law.dypvp.edu.in/blogs/manual-scavengers-the-harsh-reality-and-its-legal-framework-in-india#:~:text=Manual%20scavenging%20dates%20to%20ancient,in%20purdah%20necessitated%20manual%20scavenging.

[10] Macdonald, 1881

[11] From Shadows to Spotlight: Unveiling the Saga of Manual Scavenging in India

https://rupkatha.com/V16/n2/v16n203g.pdf

[12] Douglas, 1966

[13] Singh, 2009

[14] Prashad, 2000